Freud's theory of Psychodynamic

Towards a psychodynamic understanding of binge drinking behavior in first-semester college freshmen

The current exploratory study was designed to investigate the relationship between student characteristics and drinking behavior from a psychodynamic perspective. Respondents were 181 male and 196 female first-semester college students attending a small, private university in the northeastern United States. Subjects completed the following instruments: the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (Taylor, Ryan, & Bagby, 1985), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), the Bell Object Relations and Reality Testing Inventory (Bell, 1991), and the College Alcohol Survey (Wechsler, 1997). Results revealed clear differences in the relationship between ego functioning and drinking behavior for men compared to women. Findings indicate that the meaning of alcohol use may differ for male and female students. Implications for methodology, theory, and practice are discussed.Alcohol abuse among college students has been described as the number one health problem plaguing our nation's campuses today (Treise, Wolburg, & Otnes, 1999). Almost half of all college students binge drink, a phenomenon associated with serious consequences for students' physical, academic, and socioemotional functioning (Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994; Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, Gledhill-Hoyt, & Lee, 1998; Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000). Although binge drinking among college students has been widely researched, existing investigations have not been representatively conceptualized. Few, if any, studies have been grounded in psychodynamic theory.

Contemporary psychodynamic theorists view substance abuse as an adaptive attempt to compensate for impairments within the ego structure. Ego deficits most often associated with substance abuse include difficulties with affect regulation, self-esteem maintenance, and object relations. These interrelated ego functions develop in the interactive context of the caregiver-child dyad (Khantzian, 1994, 1995; Krystal, 1994, 1995). Broadly stated, when the caregiver-child relationship is harmonious, the child develops the ability to regulate affect, maintain self-esteem, and cultivate stable object relations. However, when the caregiver-child relationship is tumultuous, the child's ego function development is thwarted. From a psychodynamic perspective, this constitutional limitation is thought to predispose an individual to substance abuse.

According to psychodynamic theory, in healthy development, the primary caregiver is empathically attuned to his or her infant's physical and psychic needs. The newborn baby is helpless and unable to distinguish external from internal reality. Caregiver, infant, and the relationship between them are experienced as a unified whole (Mahler, 1968). The quality of this early experience hinges upon the caregiver's effectiveness in attending to the infant's need states by feeding, changing, and holding (Blatt & Lerner, 1983; Foehrenbach, Celentano, Kirby, & Lane, 1997).

When healthy development proceeds, the baby experiences inevitable empathic failures that teach him or her that the caregiver is an external source of gratification (Mahler, 1968). The caregiver is generally effective in mirroring and containing the infant's primitive affect and in regulating the child's distress by offering bodily contact and verbal soothing (Bowlby, 1988; Reckling & Buirski, 1996). Gradually, the baby internalizes the caregiver's protective, soothing, and calming capacities. The internalization of these functions serves as a precursor to effective and autonomous affect regulation.

The caregiver's ongoing attunement and responsiveness to the infant's emotional signals result in a sense of self-efficacy within the child (Silverman, 1998). The internalization of the caregiver's nurturing and protective functions evokes the feeling in the child that he or she is worthy of care, which serves as a precursor to the development of healthy self-esteem (Flynn Campbell, 1997).

Both affect regulation and self-esteem maintenance develop within an interpersonal matrix that progressively becomes more highly differentiated. As development proceeds, the baby internalizes information about both the self and the caregiver that slowly becomes more complex and refined (Hartley, 1993). This process of gradually integrating an autonomous identity relative to that of the caregiver is referred to as "separation-individuation" (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). The caregiver represents a secure home base from which to explore the world and to which the baby may return as needed for emotional refueling. Ultimately, the child is able to internalize an image of the caregiver that can be called upon even when the caregiver is not physically present. The image of the self likewise emerges as more highly differentiated and solidified. These internalized representations of objects and the self serve as precursors to healthy object relations and affect the development of subsequent interpersonal relationships (Blatt & Lerner, 1983). In so doing, they reciprocally influence the capacities for affect regulation and self-esteem maintenance (Kernberg, 1997).

Take this Survey (Is there a connection between your personality type and the art that you like? )

http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/art/

Is their a Reason why Minorities are the majority of Prison?

Prison inmates, are some of the most “maladjusted”
people in society. Most of the inmates have had too little discipline or
too much, come from broken homes, and have no self-esteem. They are very
insecure and are “at war with themselves as well as with
society” (Szumski 20). Most inmates did not learn moral values or
learn to follow everyday norms. Also, when most lawbreakers are labeled
criminals they enter the phase of secondary deviance. They will admit they
are criminals or believe it when they enter the phase of secondary
deviance (Doob 171).

Next, some believe that if we want to
rehabilitate criminals we must do more than just send them to prison. For
instance, we could give them a chance to acquire job skills; which will
improve the chances that inmates will become productive citizens upon
release. The programs must aim to change those who want to change. Those
who are taught to produce useful goods and to be productive are
“likely to develop the self-esteem essential to a normal, integrated
personality” (Szumski 21). This kind of program would provide skills
and habits and “replace the sense of hopelessness” that many
inmates have (Szumski 21).

Moreover, another technique used
to rehabilitate criminals is counseling. There is two types of counseling
in general, individual and group counseling. Individual counseling is much
more costly than group counseling. The aim of group counseling is to
develop positive peer pressure that will influence its members. One idea
in many sociology text is that group problem-solving has definite
advantages over individual problem-solving. The idea is that a wider
variety of solutions can be derived by drawing from the experience of
several people with different backgrounds. Also one individuals problem
might have already been solved by another group member and can be
suggested. Often if a peer proposes a solution it carries more weight than
if the counselor were to suggest it (Bennett 20-24).

Further, in sociology, one of the major theories of delinquency is
differential association (Cressey 1955). This means some people learned
their ways from “undesirable” people who they were forced to
be in association with and that this association “warps” their
thinking and social attitudes. “Group counseling, group interaction,
and other kinds of group activities can provide a corrective, positive
experience that might help to offset the earlier delinquent
association” (Bennett 25). However, it is said that group counseling
can do little to destroy the power of labeling (Bennett 26). The
differential-association theory emphasizes that a person is more likely to
become a criminal if the people who have the greatest influence upon them
are criminals (Doob 169).

Most of today’s correctional
institutions lack the ability and programs to rehabilitate the criminals
of America. One can predict that a prisoner held for two, four, eight or
ten years, then released , still with no education or vocational skills
will likely return to a life of crime. Often their life in crime will
resume in weeks after their release. Although the best prisons and
programs in the world will not cure the problem totally, improvements
still must be made (Szumski 20).

Prison inmates, are some of
the most “maladjusted” people in society. Most of the inmates
have had too little discipline or too much, come from broken homes, and
have no self-esteem. They are very insecure and are “at war with
themselves as well as with society” (Szumski 20). Most inmates did
not learn moral values or learn to follow everyday norms. Also, when most
lawbreakers are labeled criminals they enter the phase of secondary
deviance. They will admit they are criminals or believe it when they enter
the phase of secondary deviance (Doob 171).

Next, some
believe that if we want to rehabilitate criminals we must do more than
just send them to prison. For instance, we could give them a chance to
acquire job skills; which will improve the chances that inmates will
become productive citizens upon release. The programs must aim to change
those who want to change. Those who are taught to produce useful goods and
to be productive are “likely to develop the self-esteem essential to
a normal, integrated personality” (Szumski 21). This kind of program
would provide skills and habits and “replace the sense of
hopelessness” that many inmates have (Szumski 21).

Moreover, another technique used to rehabilitate criminals is
counseling. There is two types of counseling in general, individual and
group counseling. Individual counseling is much more costly than group
counseling. The aim of group counseling is to develop positive peer
pressure that will influence its members. One idea in many sociology text
is that group problem-solving has definite advantages over individual
problem-solving. The idea is that a wider variety of solutions can be
derived by drawing from the experience of several people with different
backgrounds. Also one individuals problem might have already been solved
by another group member and can be suggested. Often if a peer proposes a
solution it carries more weight than if the counselor were to suggest it
(Bennett 20-24).

Further, in sociology, one of the major
theories of delinquency is differential association (Cressey 1955). This
means some people learned their ways from “undesirable” people
who they were forced to be in association with and that this association
“warps” their thinking and social attitudes. “Group
counseling, group interaction, and other kinds of group activities can
provide a corrective, positive experience that might help to offset the
earlier delinquent association” (Bennett 25). However, it is said
that group counseling can do little to destroy the power of labeling
(Bennett 26). The differential-association theory emphasizes that a person
is more likely to become a criminal if the people who have the greatest
influence upon them are criminals (Doob 169).

Most of
today’s correctional institutions lack the ability and programs to
rehabilitate the criminals of America. One can predict that a prisoner
held for two, four, eight or ten years, then released , still with no
educationling, there is disadvantages. For instance, members of the group
might not be as open or show emotion because they want to appear
“tough.” Also the members might not express their opinions
openly because the others might see it as “snitching.” For the
group to work it takes a dedicated counselor (Bennett 22-23). Another type
of correctional center used for rehabilitation is halfway houses. Halfway
houses are usually located in residential communities and are aimed to
keep offenders in the community. The name comes from the fact that they
are “halfway between the community and the prison” (Fox 60).


The “rationale” behind halfway houses is that
criminal activity originates in the community, so the community has a
responsibility to try to correct it. Also, sending a person who has
deviant behavior and who has been associated with criminal influences, to
prison would just make the problem worse (Fox 61). “The best place
for treatment is in the community; this prevents the breaking of all
constructive social ties” (Fox 61).

Programs in
halfway houses usually involve work release or study release and group
sessions for therapy and counseling. Most programs vary greatly depending
on the administrator. Generally, the purpose is to
“reintegrate” members back into the community. There are three
systems generally used in programs and in the process: “change by
compliance, client-centered change, and change by credibility in that it
‘makes sense.” (Fox 73). The compliance model is designed to
make good work habits. The client-centered model focuses on a high
understanding of the person. The credibility model emphasizes making
decisions and getting back into the community. These programs are made to
avoid institutions as much as possible (Fox 73). On the other hand, many
inmates think the government does not want to rehabilitate criminals. The
reason behind this thinking is that prisons supply thousands of jobs to
the economy. Also the construction of new prisons brings millions of
dollars into the economy each year and if there were no new prisons needed
it would mean the loss of thousands of jobs (Szumski 24-26). Henry
Abernathy and inmate in Texas said “just think what a catastrophe it
would cause if all cons across the country decided never to commit another
crime.” Richard Cepulonis, an inmate in Massachusetts said just the
title “Department of Corrections” is a “misnomer”
he said “they don’t correct anything.” In conclusion,
things need to be done to improve rehabilitation in America. Improvements
in job training, counseling, and halfway houses for rehabilitation must be
brought to the forefront by citizens. If we do not get involved and try to
make changes, our crime problem could worsen beyond control.